The Dynamics of Change in Gender Relations

1.0 Introduction: When discussing the dynamics if change in gender relations we look at the capacity of families and communities to meet their daily basic needs and how the gender roles develop and change at family, community, national and international levels and if they allow a free and equal participation of men and women, boys and girls for communities’ economic development.. This paper will examine various concepts around gender, manifestations of how gender has changed over time at different levels, national and international efforts, some research findings, achievements, remaining challenges and recommendations.

1.1 The Conceptual Framework around gender: Sex and Gender differ in a way that sex is a biological attribute associated with being male or female and may not change and gender is a social attribute recognizing norms, practices, relationships in a society which are liable to change over time in a society. Gender Analysis is the examination of causes for socio and economic inequality for women .Gender Equity is the end result of treating men and women fairly.

1.2 The historical dynamism of Gender and Development: The search for change in gender relations started in the 1950s some approaches relating to women and development emerged starting with the Welfare Approach and the relationship was based on meeting women’s reproductive needs followed by the Women and Development ( WID) Approach adding strategic needs by allocating resources for women’s projects followed by the Gender and Development (GAD) addressing the relations of both men and women. Lastly came the women Empowerment approach supporting them to overcome inequities with men.

1.3 Dynamism of Gender Changes at family tribal/cultural level: Studies by The ILO indicate that discrimination and gravity of traditional stereotyping domestic chores for women and girls is severe in rural areas than in urban locations and these change with technology.

1.4 Addressing Gender Issues at a National Level: Some achievements: Following the Beijing Platform of Action (BPA) and pressure from the coalition of the Civil society, the World Bank Research findings (2007) share that Tanzania has been at the forefront of change by creating a positive legal framework and political context for gender equality. In the 2006 World Economic Forum Global Gender Report Tanzania ranked first out of 115 countries in terms of women’s economic participation as reflected in the MDG No. 3 relating to empowerment of women the “National Development Vision 2025 with the aim of attaining gender equality and empowerment of women through a “Women and Gender Development Policy”(2000), ” The National Strategy for Gender Development specifying how mainstreaming is to be implemented. Tanzania has also ratified the International Instruments such as CEDAW, and new land laws which mainstream women and political representation stands at 33% currently.

1.5 National level challenges: Even after incorporating the Beijing Resolutions, some challenges do retard changes in gender relations like the strategies MKUKUTA and MKURABITA whose fruits are still pending. Specific gender needs of pregnant or lactating women, maternal mortality, female genital mutilation which has now turned to babies and nursing school children are yet to be met. Also, 770 out of 100,000 women die due to maternal mortality. All this need to change positively.

2.0 International Efforts to Address Gender: The Beijing Platform of Action.

Research findings by Lusimbi (2004) showed her dissatisfaction with the government not prioritizing all 12 priorities of action after Beijing and exclusion of women’s work in the GDP calculations and this was an area for change. She appreciates major progresses after Beijing include the initiation of Gender Sensitive Budgeting, aiming and minimizing the economic gap between men and women and also the SAPs, PRSPs and micro finance institutional support to women. Moreover, HIV/ AIDS has impacted women since there is no government support for Home based care and orphans. Also, credit access constraints women due to loan conditions and regulations. Also, the root cause for school girls’ pregnancy was to be determined to change the change is to review the 1996 law.

3.0 Recommendations for integrating gender and CED: Community Economic Development is about change that put men and women into tasks. CED is about improving living conditions of people- women; men and children by making them participate in development processes, for increased ownership. Change entails inclusion of all other marginalized groups in the community like the poor men, the disabled, widows, widowers so that their needs are also carried on board in order to have meaningful community economic development. Therefore, different approaches are needed to produce change relations outcomes that are positive such as, community education on gender issues or gender awareness campaigns, institutionalizing support for women and participatory approaches involving women from family to national level.

References:

1. Masuki, KFG etal Gender Dynamics in the Adoption of intervention for Increasing Agricultural Water Productivity: A case of Water System Innovations in Makanya Catchment, Tanzania.

2. AFROL gender Profiles: Tanzania.

3. UN Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing China4th – 15^th September ,1995.

4. Gender and PRSP, with Experiences from Tanzania , Bolivia, Vietnam and

Mozambique.

5. Women 2000 and beyond. Published to promote the goals of the Beijing Declaration

and the Platform for Action Sept. 2005.

6. Civil Society participation in PRSP: Tanzania Experience. C M M Kajege.

7. Tanzania Gender and Economic Growth Assessment. International Finance

Corporation, 2007

8. TGNP Research Report on Civil Society Participation in the Implementation OF BPA,

Mary Lusimbi, 2004

9. The UN Fourth World Conference on Women 4^th -15^th September 1995.

Annex 2: List of Acronyms

1. CEDAW- Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against

Women.

2. ILO- International Labour Organisation

3. TGNP – Tanzania Gender Network Programme.

4. SAP- Structural Adjustment Programme.

5. PRSP- Poverty Reduction Strategy.

Poverty,What is It ?

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations.

1. SACCOS – Savins and Crecit Cooperatives

2. MFI – Micro Finance Institutions.

3. TZ PPA – Tanzania Participatory Poverty Assessment.

4. SRPN – Southern African Regional Poverty Networking.

5. PRSP- Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper

6. HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus

7. AIDS- Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

8. NPES – National Poverty Eradication Strategy (1997).

9. MDGs – Millennium Development Goals.

10. PRS – Poverty Reduction Strategy.

11. NSGRP – National Strategy for Group and Reduction of Poverty.

12. MKUKUTA – Mkakati wa Kukuza Uchumi na Kuondoa Umaskini Tanzania.

13. ZSGR – Zanzibar Strategy for Growth and reduction of Poverty

14. MKUZA - Mkakati wa Kuondoa Umaskini Zanzibar.

15 IK – Indigenous Knowledge.

16.WHO – World Health Organization.

17.CED – Community Economic Development.

18.ASDP – Agricultural Sector Development Programme.

19.RDS – Rural Development Strategy.

20.ASDS – Agricultural Sector Development Strategy.

21. O and OD- Obstacles and Opportunities to Development

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Outline: This paper will examine the conceptual framework and analyze theoretical review of what is in the literature regarding poverty, knowledge and human capital - as solutions to poverty and what has transpired over time especially in Tanzania. This is in regard to the core factors of poverty in terms of causes, manifestations indicators, levels and possible solutions and strategies to be applied to reduce poverty. The paper will also analyze some observations or empirical experiences of poverty reduction using the factors of Indigenous Knowledge and Human Capacity (Capital) as possible solutions. Finally, there will be a discussion of underlying policies and strategic frameworks which aim at addressing poverty in the community ending with my own perspective on the implication of poverty in Community Economic Development.

1.2 Conceptualization: Poverty: In the country analysis of Tanzania SARPN (www.sarpn.org.za/documents) remarks that the definition of poverty is complex, multi-dimensional, wide scoped and dynamic. Therefore poverty is broadly defined as a state of “deprivation, denial of decent life, which includes exclusion, isolation vulnerability, income poverty parameters include poverty and food poverty; but also how utilization of technology, environmental degradation, unemployment, rural, urban migration and poor communication. Recent definitions of poverty incorporate problems of self esteem, vulnerability to internal and external risks, exclusion from the development process and lack of social capital. Both quantitative and qualitative definitions of poverty held to identify who the poor are, the extent of their poverty where they live and how they earn their living. Relative poverty means the incidence of absolute poverty among different population group and Absolute poverty line is the income required to meet a minimum calorific consumption level. Vulnerability to poverty means people’s chances of being poorer tomorrow than they are today due to forces that prevent people from getting their basic needs. Human capital as per Wikipenda dictionary means the stock of productive skills and technical knowledge embodied in labour, usually labeled one of the factors of production. It originated from the writings of Jacob Mincer when he wrote” the Journey of Political Economy (1958). Knowledge was also defined by then as something expandable and self generating with use generated through experience, transportable and shareable.

Indigenous Knowledge has been defined by several people as the local knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society not knowledge generated by universities, research institutions (Mosimege M, 2005). It is the basis of local level decision making in agriculture, health care food preparation, education, natural resource management and a host other activities in rural communities (Warren, 1991). It is a synonym of traditional and local knowledge developed by a community. (Warren, 1992). It is unique, traditional local existing within and developed in geographic area. (Louise Grenier, 1998).

2.0 Theoretical Literature

2.1 Socio economic indicators of poverty: On the Tanzania National Website, earlier definitions focused on “the cost of meeting basic needs necessary for maintaining a minimum standard of living and later included socio-economic indicators of well being, high morbidity and mortality rates, prevalence of malnutrition illiteracy, high infant and maternal mortality rates, low life expectancy, poor quality housing, inadequate clothing, low per capita income and expenditure, poor infrastructure and social services. Others - high fertility, lack of access to basic services such as safe water, food insecurity and poor technology. A poor household is the one characterized by some or all of the mentioned indicators.

2.2 Manifestations of Poverty: Kazaura (1995) cites low and increasingly declining per capital income, high unemployment, increasing malnutrition, high infant mortality rates, low life expectancy, poor housing facilitates and inadequate accessibility to social services and facilities.

2.3 On the Causes of Poverty at the National Website, reinforcing factors include lack of productive resources to generate material wealth illiteracy, prevalence of diseases, natural calamities like floods, drought and wars. Others at the international level where there is an unequal economic and political partnership. This is reflected in unfavourable terms of trade. Others are traditions and norms which prevent effective resource utilization and participation in increasing income. SARPN shares, impoverishing forces which arise from social, economic and political processes leading to risks caused by economic, environmental, health, governance age-related and cultural conditions also climate change, orphan hood, disability and ageing which can threaten to push people into poverty or cause them to become poorer than they were before. Kazaura (1995) also gave lack of access to basic services, low level of influence and participation in the political process, lack of political will by the government.

2.4 Poverty Levels and Trends: Poverty can be assessed by levels and trends but this is challenged by inconsistency information and unavailable official poverty lines. On The National Website some studies have shown “lower lines” to denote basic food needs eating habits, nutritional requirement and cost and “upper lines” in which there is access to other essential needs such as clothing, housing, water and health. Usually, a poverty line of One US $ per day is used for inter country comparisons. All in all poverty is predominantly visible in rural areas although the urban poor and the unemployed are increasing fast. In both rural and urban areas the poor are less educated of ill health, with large families and their, vulnerability is increased by presence of diseases especially HIV and AIDS

2.5 Solutions of poverty: Kazaura (1995) observes that since the causes, poverty were broad, the solutions were also required to be multidimensional citing the review of the existing economic reforms to accelerate economic growth. He also suggested collaboration and coordination in tackling poverty leading to the maximum use of scarce resources, greater harmonization between national policies programmes and more efficient and effective programme implementation. SARPN added the accessing of knowledge. If people can access information on what poverty is, it will increase their level of meaningful participation in the government poverty reduction strategies and help build ownership and commitment as well as improve poverty reduction policies and practices.

Provision of Credit Finance: There are various credit schemes for increasing access to capital and generating income. Some of these include those offered by Tanzania Gats by Trust, Rural Community Banks used as intermediary microfinance institutions providing funding and technical assistance to individuals ,the Group Loan Schemes operate when funds are provided to groups whereby 80% of these are women. This is based on the traditional savings and credit societies popularly known as Upatu or Kibati.

Uliwa and Fischer (2004) also refers to ‘Upatu” as the simplest financial institution. The members of these rotating savings and Credit association or (ROSCA) group save their own money and then lend it out to each member in succession. Some farmers groups use this approach too. They also mention the creation by the Banking and Financial Services Act of 1991 known as Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs) which have become the main financial institutions in rural areas. The Opportunities and obstacles to Development (O and OD) Methodology whereby the community positively identifies available resources to overcome obstacles fostering the spirit of self reliance. This is the initiative of the President’s Office.

2.6 The Effects of Human Capital on Economic Development.

More educated people earn more than less educated people Compare with brain drain. Improving higher educated quality in Africa would reduce problem, reflected in census data of developed countries. In “The Socratic Movement” edited by Waerdt. Socrates believed that knowledge of nature is entirely “beyond human capacity” he also believed that “some knowledge of nature of the universe may be attained by human beings but not the causes of celestial phenomena. He believed that human beings may not be able to discover everything about nature. He called his philosophical opponents “madmen” who fail to recognize the limitations of human knowledge. Human Capacity is a tool that brings development by using human brain. There is need to organize capacity to make it more useful in society. For example man can increase level or capacity of production if it is well organized with proper training.

2.7 The case of Tanzania towards addressing poverty: The Presidents office publication an O and OD (2004) narrates the Historical perspective on Participatory Planning in Tanzania. In 1961- Participatory economic Planning / bottom up planning envisioned. 1961 – 1966 – Independence vision – goal to attain higher standards of living by fighting illiteracy, diseases and poverty. Motto for people. hand work, self help projects to build the nation, catchword “UHURU NA KAZI” Independence and Work” “it can be done play your part Julius K. Nyerere. 1967 – 1992 period led by the Arusha Declaration which articulated the so-economic liberation philosophy on socialism and self reliance. According to IFAD, in 1988 nearly 12 million rural Tanzanians, or 60% of the rural population were living below poverty line.

The National targets as per (NPES) are to reduce the current levels of poverty by 50% by the year 2010 and eradicate absolute poverty from 36% in to 0% by 2025. The National Vision 2025 envisages Tanzania’s graduation from a least developed into a middle income country having eliminated abject poverty. After a comprehensive review report in 2004 the Tanzanian government formulated the National Strategy for growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) known by its Kiswahili acronym (MKUKUTA). This was approved in 2005 for 2005/05 to 2009/10 to continue moving towards the implementation. This is focusing on 3 broad clusters of Growth and reduction of income poverty. Improvement of quality of life and social well being. Governance and accountability. Zanzibar also adopted a counterpart strategy or MKUZA.

Constraints to fighting poverty: These include the debt burden which incapacitates ability to allocate adequate resources for poverty reduction measures, the refugee problem. Also SARPN adds environmental degradation, rural-urban migration, over crowding in urban areas, high population growth HIV and AIDS, gender inequality and income inequalities.

3.0. Empirical Literature:

3.1. Developing Human Capital has been practiced in several ways. One of them is “Farming for Change”, whereby FARM – Africa, a non governmental organization works to reduce poverty by enabling marginal Tanzanian farmers and herders to manage their natural resources more effectively to improve their incomes by providing sustainable and innovative solutions to problems identified by farmers. .

Source: www.farmafrica.org.uk

3.2. Also seen on Pambazuka News www.rural poverty portal.org

We are told that some poor farmers in Tanzania are now using modern information and communication technologies like mobile phones and internet to get access to market information and knowledge on market chains from producer to consumer.

3.3. Another example is on utilization of Indigenous knowledge in the fields of food security, medicine and vegetables. The Tanzania Development Gateway (2006) shares that the vision of a truly global knowledge partnership will be realized when people in the developing countries participate as “Contributors and users of knowledge”.

Some cited examples are on: Preserving indigenous knowledge for food security among the Maasai and Barbaig pastoralists of Tanzania whereby they use extensive knowledge of livestock and biodiversity to sustain themselves across changing environmental conditions. Another example an same website is the Malaria herbs which has become a top cash crop in Tanzania, as a major source of artemesinin a key ingredient in the new generation of ant malarias recommended by World Health Organization (WHO).

3.4 Makonde Carvings: www.makondecarvings.com.

Makonde carving is probably the best known art work produced in East and Central Africa. The Makonde use the African Blackwood, the ‘mpingo”. These are mode in Southern Tanzania which is the home of the World Famous Makonde. By having their products purchased, learning the English Language to avoid middlemen, there is a more to support poverty reduction and livelihood for rural communities.

3.5. Looking at the human capacity Development needs, Homewood (2005) reports that livelihood diversification for Maasai pastoralists is increasing pressure on land from conservation whereas agriculture and tourism and pushing Maasai pastoralists to the marginal areas. This make them stop traditional livelihood activities and are planning to engage in tourism to earn extra income.

3.6. In his speech the President of Tanzania his Excellency Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete on achieving the MDGs in Tanzania during the meeting with SIDA in February 2007 he emphasizes the approach of addressing poverty by massive investments and modernization of employment rich sectors. ….

3.7 Remarkable success in human capacity is in primary education which has led to a crisis of demand for places in secondary school which are currently on expansion as well as tertiary.

3.8. The Fast Track Initiative: In an assessment of a Public-Private Partnership Process on developing the Fertilizer value chain in Tanzania (2206) it was revealed that several problems were encountered during the SAP implementation period. That the SAP policies had negative impacts for most small holder farmers due to high prices of farm inputs and lack of credit so they abandoned use of fertilizers and other inputs between 1992 to 2000.

4.0: Poverty Related Policies.

(i))Poverty Policies: According to SARPN and the Tanzania National Website. Immediately after Independence, the government of Tanzania (by then Tanganyika) put in place some public policies and measures to fight poverty (and the other 2 enemies). Some of these intervention measures included socio and economic policies addressing poverty at a national and individual levels. The first National Poverty Eradication Strategy (NPES) spelling out a vision for a society without abject poverty and improved social condition in 1997. Temu ( 2006) wrote about the Translation of the National Strategy into Sector Policies. On (ii)The National Trade Policy(2003) that trade development has been incorporated into various cluster strategies of MKUKUTA. Under Cluster 1 strategies, 6 refer to trade and / or exports. MKUKUTA highlights the importance of SME promotion and creating an enabling private sector environment for better growth and trade. However, this has not trickled to the rural areas. He continues that, (iii) The National Agriculture Policy (1997)is the main policy vehicle for implementing the agriculture component of the country’s vision 2025. However in many parts of Tanzania the hand hoe is still in used, farm sizes are small and also there is very little extension service to the farmers. Nyoni discloses that while the agricultural sector’s growth rate has been at 4%, the mining sector growth rate has risen to >15%. The question is does Tanzania take advantage of this resource ? Can the gain from mining feed into the agriculture sector ?

(iv) The Water Policy,(2002) Arvidson and Nordastrom shares that, 30% of rural water schemes were not functioning properly. I think this could be due to either laxity or lack of proper Monitoring and Evaluation Frameworks for many community economic development programmes which excludes an integration of sustainable development and management of water resources. The same authors inform us that the annual renewable water resources of Tanzania were 2,700 cubic meters per person in 2,000 while the global average was 7,300 cubic meters. Now, with the Current Annual Population Increase of about 1.8% this figure is likely to drop leading to water crisis for domestic, livestock, agriculture, industry, mining energy fisheries, environment, wildlife, tourism, forestry and other areas. Although the original 1991 National Water Policy set a goal of providing clean and safe water to the population within 400 meters of their household by 2002, only 50% of rural population and 70% of urban population was reached. (v) The National Population Policy (2006) has goals of providing a framework and guidelines for integration of population variables in the development process. Although he main goal of the current policy is to direct development of other policies, strategies and programmes that ensure sustainable development of the people as it is with other policies there are hardly any no resources allocated for implementation. (vi) The National Employment Policy (1997) identifies 2 categories of employment namely wage employment and self employment. The objective is to in increase per capital income to reduce the state of poverty in Tanzania. It also identifies strategies for exploiting existing wealth in the country. The level of unemployment is unfortunately still high in Tanzania The unfortunate experience is that although Tanzania formulates good policies, many of them end up unimplemented due to lack of clear implementation procedures during policy formulation stage, but also due to insufficient political will during resource allocation for policy implementation

1.0 My own perspective

6.1 What is the value of export trade to the community? It seems poverty is here to stay. Another reality is that in the Daily News of October 2^nd 2007, “Africa touted on the export trade”. It stipulates that Africa has very little to offer in international markets calling for radical measures to be taken urgently to redress the situation . This was part of the opening speech of the Vice president of Tanzania Dr Mohamed Shein at the high level trade meeting in Dar es Salaam.. The WTO Director General urged African leaders to work out how to trade “competitively”. Moreover, in 2005, Africa’s share in the global trade was only 1.7%. The Civil society has raised a lot of noise but nobody is listening to them. As representatives of the poor majority, they have raised several petitions on the postponement of the signing of the EPA due 31^st December 2007 but this goes on as planned. This is not healthy at all.

6.2 Community Economic development through people centred economics: Poverty is a legacy of colonialism. What is transpiring in Tanzania currently could be compared to what happened in Arichat Cape Breton, Nova Scotia (1992 when the fishing industry declined leaving 1,000 people jobless and the community economic development was born, Cameron (1998) cautions that CED challenges such as requiring a lot of volunteer time seed money and investment capital. Therefore, CED needs to be internalized in the Tanzania Development Policy to attract a deeper government commitment with a long term strategy for funding marketing, training, communication, technology, research, securities and peoples’ access to credit and savings.

6.3 Address the cause: The war that started at the Tanzania’s Independence in 1991 has neither ended nor been won. I am convinced that Tanzania can manage to eradicate ignorance through human capital development and proper utilization of indigenous and modern knowledge. Sufficient resources are also needed. These in turn will lead to a knowledgeable community empowered to address the multiple faces of poverty. Tanzania without poverty is possible. Someone has to give the community genuine power to act.

Bibliography.

1. Tanzania Development Gateway (2006) Indigenous Knowledge Database. Sharing and Dissemination of Indigenous Knowledge Information.
2. Cameron SD (1998) People Centred Economics, ECD Online – Community Development ECD in Nova Scotia. Richmond.
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Journal:What is Community Ecomnomic Development

A List of Acronyms

EU- European union

EPA- Economic Partnership Agreement

WTO- World Trade Organization

ACP- African Caribbean and Pacific

CED – Community Economic Development

FAO- Food Agriculture Organisation

PPP- Peoples Popular Participation

AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.

1.0 Introduction

The aim of this work is to compile a journal focusing on the meaning of the concept of CED as a new approach to combat poverty in Tanzania. This journal will give a summary of what different schools of thought have expressed over time and also the writer’s reflection as a critical evaluation basing on the impact that is seen in the Tanzania community today. Economic development has its roots in the Western European society the understanding of which gives a clear comprehension of the economic dynamics in the community. Knowledge on the linkages regarding health, poverty and living diversities facilitates improvement of economic conditions of the community especially the rural community where 85% of the population lives. Economic development is viewed from the way society has undergone transformation of modes of production actually from primitive communism followed by feudalism, then the capitalistic mode of production, competitive capitalism and finally imperialism. Each stage portrays people’s interaction with nature to develop themselves. For each historical period there is a theoretical school of thought with its strengths and shortcomings in relation to economic development.

1.1 Feudalism (13^th – 18^th Century: The Feudal Society’s major goal was for the nobility to manage, politics, military and land, while the peasantry or serfs worked on the land. Feudalism did not value individual progress. Productivity was low and growth was static. There was growth of population and trade and a demand for manufactured goods. As described by Karl Marx, the power was in the hands of the ruling class (the aristocracy) who controlled the arable land on which the peasants worked as serfs.

1.2 The emergence of capitalism: Although the government’s role in the transition from feudalism to capitalisms was minimal, circumstances such as wars, growth in trade and demand for manufactured goods forced it to keep in control promoting economic development through taxes and mercantilism via export trade. This caused a shift from agriculture to industrial development. At the end of the 15^th Century, a capitalist mode of production was seen growing along side the feudal mode of production.

Competitive Capitalism: (1700-1800) transferred political and economic power from the feudal aristocracy to the capitalist bourgeoisie which promoted private ownership of the means of production. The early capitalists were for personal development who sought cheap labour from the liberated serfs to work in their factories and expand free trade. This gave rise to proletariats or the labourers on one hand and their exploiters the capitalist bourgeoisie on the other hand. Two schools of thought explained the role of capitalism in economic development. One was of Classical Political Economy by Adam Smith who stood for private enterprise, private property, self interest, maximization of personal well being, the market and the limited state. He argued that government should have less interference in the free trade. The government should do defence, security and laws. To him the free market is a mechanism for resolving basic economic problems.

Another school was on Historical Materialism by Carl Marx who believed that economic development was to be achieved as a class and not as individuals struggle. He stressed that as the capitalist class exploited the working class through a small pay and that further growth of capitalism gave the proletariat an opportunity to rise and destroy it, giving rise to Socialism. Marx cared for the reality of the material conditions of the worker’s lives and the social relations of production. Economic development for him was imbalanced because it was for only for those who owned the means of production excluding the working class.

1.3 Imperialism and Economic Theory (1860-1945) This was the time when the capitalist mode of production spread around the world and the poorly developed areas of the world were divided among the European nations opening doors to a global economy. More schools of thought emerged such as the Neo classical Economics by Alfred Marshall who believed that capitalism would eventually be beneficial to all leading to a better society educated, and with greater distribution of wealth. He focused on the impact of scarce resources on prices and increased participation of state, to include education encouraging trade unions, providing public health, restricting monopolies and creating employment for the poor. Another school was of Vladimir I. Lenin who argued that the proletariat and the peasantry would overtake capitalism in a quick manner.

1.4 Circular Flow of Money and Leakages Another economist, John Maynard Keynes and the state addressed unemployment in a capitalist economy threatening its collapse. He addressed the circular flow of money as the value of everything produced in a country in a period being equal to total income received. He also referred to Leakages as non consumption uses of income like savings, taxes imports. Keynesian economy promotes a mixed economy where the state and private play important role. Then there was Laisser faire economic liberalism advocating that market & private sector operate best without state intervention.

2.0 Competing Theories of Economic Development. After World War 2 the world was divided between the rich and the poor countries more economists explained the causes of this disparity. Four schools of thought emerged such as the structuralist school of development which looked at how structural aspects of domestic and international economy halted growth of developing countries. This argued for the modernizing of the economic structures of developing countries so that the governments adopt in country industrialization and import substitution and expand the domestic economy. Another one was The Linear model of development or the western European view of Economic Development (1940s – 1950s). Developing countries could imitate this but it was criticized for having false assumptions. The Neo-classical Revival came with the rejection of Neo- Marxists as it was concerned with efficient and cost effective allocation of scarce, resources & optimal growth of resources. Economic stagnation in developing countries was due to poorly designed economic policies.

3.0 What is the Community Economic Development? This is a process taking place in a community which is people driven reflecting togetherness, creativeness in a diversified and sustainable manner. CED is community led, a process of getting together and organizing its long-term holistic by addressing social, economic, construct and environment, inclusive of people’s goals in terms of strengths, sharing vision peoples’ development, sustainable, innovative, with diversification of economic opportunities and collaborative with other communities. CED is a basic daily life concept which touches the lives of everyone especially those socially excluded. Key issues for success of community development identification of needs, Local participation, Inter -organizational and inter group relations, Social interaction, on-going support. There are several types of Approaches to community developments and several strategies sand principles to realize Community Economic Development.

3.1 Sustainable Community Development. This is development that meets the needs of the present but also has capacity to go on in the future – economically policy ,socially, environmentally has long-term results.

3.2 Local Development. This is the joint effort of the local government the private and not for profit sectors and local communities to improve with the supportive central government. The last 2 concepts complement CED.

4.0 Conclusion: Do the above narrated theories really matter? Do we hear leaders using them or reflecting upon them? What can Tanzania learn from the theories? It is obvious that there is some significant relevancy of these development based theories for some reasons: The history of mankind is the struggle for survival, the documentation of which informs the consequent steps in man’s endeavors to improve his well being or development. The diversity based on wealth and poverty living together cannot be left in silence. The development economists and researchers have always deigned and shared new arguments and findings on this diversity and how it affects communities. The theories do not operate in isolation. They are linked to the realities we live with in the community where 85% of the people live in Tanzania

Although there are traces of economic growth in Tanzania, nevertheless this is not reflected in the parallel reduction in poverty. Community Economic Development therefore is the answer or appropriate response to the current poverty problems in Tanzania, the understanding and implementation of which will make big differences in the majority of the Tanzanian poor. Realistic speaking, there are some traces of Community Economic Development in our community although not embracing all the principles. Some of these include, the defunct Ujamaa villages, Sustainable Cities Programmes and also some form of Local Economic Development reflected in the village/street level local government operations. Moreover, for communities where there is research on medicines and human beings there are “Community Advisory Boards” formed which include the marginalized people, People Living with AIDS, researchers and ordinary community members to raise awareness and to make the community own research processes.

The Peoples’ Participation (PPP) established by the FAO to stimulate active involvement and organization of the grassroots rural people in their small informal self reliant groups of the rural poor, women and farmers to enhance their incomes.

In the Guardian of September 28^th, and article read,” Stop EU trade links with ex colonies- protesters” The Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) viewed as a “balanced and equitable trade initiative between the EU and the African Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) is facing conflict with the civil society who want a full involvement of farmers as major stakeholders who will suffer the consequences when the agreement is signed by December 31^st. There has not had any awareness raising on what is transpiring. Also, the removal of tariffs as ordered by the World Trade Organization (WTO) will end up favouring the European counterparts. Why not broaden the participation during the negotiation stage? The leaders appear to be moving forward by ignoring the masses, is there a hidden agenda?

In the same paper, it was observed that the Private Sector infancy and small size in Tanzania was attributed to the adoption of Socialist Economic Policies after independence. This was in accordance with the paper presented by Dr Honest Ngowi a Senior Lecturer of Mzumbe University. He argued that Tanzania was slow to change from a socialist mode of production to market economies with the private sector led economic growth and development. There must be some hidden reality in all this and Africa should not make another mistake of developing Europe by the new Economic Development of the Western European Society. Will there ever be economic equilibrium between the wealthy and the poor countries? It Time to start reading on the African Community Economic Development which is more realistic and more meaningful to our people.

Each daily paper in Tanzania addresses community economic issues at various levels. On the 1^st of October the Guardian article on page 11 was about the threat of growing population trends on the Tanzania 2025 Vision realization since it aims at attaining a competitive economy by 2025, but with the annual population growth at 2.9% macro economic stability may flop. This means that there will be a long wait for sustainable economic development. However, we need to determine where the root problem lies since it may not be the rise in population. Even as this paper is being written, the president of Tanzania is asking for aid in the US to help alleviate poverty and boost economic growth. When will Tanzania say no to external aid and utilize her resources for sustainable purposes?

Annex 1: References:

1. Warren J. Samwels. The Political Economy of Adam Smith. Ethics Vol. 87 No. 3 April 1977, 189 – 207.
2. Historical Materialism, form Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
3. The Guardian Newspaper, Wednesday, September 19^th 2007.
4. Economic Development: The Story of an Idea. H. W (Heinz Wolfgang) Arndt.
5. World Bank Report (2004)
6. Modules on Stages of Economic Development. www.cla.purdue.edu.english/theory/marxism/modules
7. Understanding CEd. Hanadout
8. Feudalism. Wikipedia the free encyclopedia.
9. Contreras,R. Competing Theories of Economic Development
10. Contreras,R. How the concept of development got started

Journal: What is knowledge

List of Abbreviations

1. IK – Indigenous Knowledge

2. WHO – World Health Organisation

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction. p.4

1.1 Conceptualization Purpose. p.4

2.0 Indigenous Knowledge p.5

3.0 Indigenous Knowledge and Art p.6

4.0 Conclusion p.6

1.0 Introduction.

1.1 Conceptualization Purpose.

This paper will examine and analyze theoretical review of what is in the Literature regarding Knowledge and what has transpired over time especially in Tanzania. There will be a summary of some literature which discuss knowledge from different perspectives. The paper will end with a conclusion which will give some perspectives on the subject as well as the relationship with Community Economic Development.

Knowledge refers to the ability to understand and find solutions to problems. It creates awareness and a general understanding of a particular problem or issue before addressing it. Whenever we discover something new this is linked to knowledge. Scientific inquiries, research technological achievements, all relate to knowledge.

In “The Socratic Movement” edited by Waerdt, it is stipulated that Socrates believed that knowledge of nature is entirely “beyond human capacity” he also believed that “some knowledge of nature of the universe may be attained by human beings but not the causes of celestial phenomena. He believed that human beings may not be able to discover everything about nature. He called his philosophical opponents of nature. “madmen” who fail to recognize the limitations of human knowledge.

In a Book review “Before and After Socrates by Francis Macdonald Cornford. The Journal of Philosophy Vol. 30 No. 19 (1933) CUP, Socrates searched for the end of living. The great and revolutionary achievement of Socrates was the discovery that the true self was not the body but the soul that is the seat of self-knowledge and of self rule. His mission was to substitute for the morality of conformity and ideas of spiritual manhood “rising above the commonly acknowledged bounds of human capacity”.

2.0 Indigenous Knowledge

Tanzania has developed an indigenous knowledge database which is a product of the Tanzania Development Gateway, an initiative that uses Information Technology and the internet to promote social and economic development. In the Tanzania Development Gateway (2007) there is an Indigenous Knowledge Database Sharing and Dissemination of IK Information.

Mosimege (2005) defines Indigenous Knowledge as the local knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society not knowledge generated by universities, research institutions. It is the basis of local level decision making in agriculture, health care food preparation, education, natural resource management and a host of other activities in rural communities Warren (1991). It is a synonym of traditional and local knowledge developed by a community. Again, Warren (1992). It is unique traditional, local existing within and developed in geographic area.

Another example is on utilization of Indigenous knowledge in the fields of food security, medicine and vegetables. The Tanzania Development Gateway (2006) shares that the vision of a truly global knowledge partnership will be realized when people in the developing countries participate as “Contributors and users of knowledge”.

Some cited examples are on, preserving indigenous knowledge for food security among the Maasai and Barbaig pastoralists of Tanzania whereby they use extensive knowledge of livestock and biodiversity to sustain themselves across changing environmental conditions. Women significantly preserve this knowledge by maintaining animal health, foraging plants and managing pastoral lands.

Another example on same website is the malaria herb which has become a top cash crop in Tanzania, as a major source of artemesinin a key ingredient in the new generation of anti malaria which the World Health Organization (WHO) says are the key to fighting this deadly disease. Based on the ancient Chinese herbal remedy, it is now known as artemesinin a combination therapy currently proved as the most effective malaria drug.

Moreover, there have been the indigenous vegetables in Tanzania considered valuable because of their nutritional value and danger of extinction. They are significant in food security for the under privileged in urban and rural settings. Although threatened by extinction. These are crop species genuinely native to the area. They play an important role in Tanzania’s health sector, and as a source of income.

3.0 Indigenous Knowledge and Art

The Makonde carving www.makondecarvings.com. is probably the best known art work produced in East and Central Africa. The Makonde use the African Blackwood, the ‘mpingo”. These are made in Southern Tanzania which is the home of the World Famous Makonde. By having their products purchased, there is a more to support poverty reduction and livelihood for rural communities. Their work is both traditional and contemporary reflecting a tribal past and a response to urban life. They utilize their tribal myths and stories to design masterful work.

One example of a successful group is called Ukombozi (2006). These had a desire to break free from the exploitative economic relationship between carvers and shop-owners to empower themselves to seek out new markets and a better and more secure livelihood. They engaged in English classes to be able to communicate directly with foreign buyers and avoid middlemen / shop owners who paid unfair prices for “highly skilled time consuming and arduous work”. The shop owners would then sell the carvings at highly prices to tourists.

4.0 Conclusion

The efforts shared above are about the way man has used his brain to create knowledge to solve life’s problems. What remains important is to work out ways of activating indigenous knowledge to make it more useful to be able to reduce poverty in the community. Once it is activated and improved then it should be disseminated to other people and other areas. These in turn will lead to a knowledgeable community empowered to address the multiple faces of poverty. Community Economic Development has some links with knowledge. Firstly, the community is the home of indigenous knowledge. There are many people in the community who have wisdom and are knowledgeable. Some of these are already earmarked as community leaders and decision makers. Others are community craftsmen, renowned farmers, fishermen and so on. According to the principles of CED the community needs to identify the various resources and talents embedded in it and work out ways of benefiting from them. Through knowledge. In a participatory and collaborative manner the members could share the various knowledge capacities and build a sustainable reservoir of knowledge which they could utilize whenever time and need required. Communities have to be made aware of the significance of knowledge as a powerful tool for their survival and that it is one of the mechanism of fighting poverty. The aim should be to increase productivity, income, food security and improvement in health. Communities should use knowledge to solve problems defend the use of traditional food crops which are actually more nutritious and life prolonging. When people think by using their capacities, they come up with new things create more knowledge keep sharing what they own and support one another. That will be community at its best!

Bibliography

1 .The Tanzania Development Gateway: Indigenous Knowledge Database Sharing and

Dissemination of IK Information (2007).

2. The Socratic Movement Edited by Paul A Vander.

3. Indigenous Knowledge Local Pathways to Global Development.

Marking Five Years of the world Bank Indigenous Knowledge for Development

Program 2004. Knowledge and Learning Group Africa Region. The World Bank.

4. Mosimege M (2005)Indigenous Knowledge Systems Unit Science and Technology

Expert Services Department of Science and Technology.

Journal: Social Exclusion and Inclusion

List of Abbreviations

1. ILO- International Labour Organisation
2. US- United States
3. EU- European Union
4. CS- Civil Society
5. CED- Community Economic Developmet

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction p. 4

2.0 Social Exclusion p.4

3.0 Social exclusion in Developing Countries p.5

4.0 Social inclusion p.5

5.0 Conclusion p.6

Bibliography p.7

1.0 Introduction

This paper will give a brief summary of what has transpired in literature regarding, social exclusion and social inclusion.

The first part will present the conceptual framework of the two terminologies followed by a discussion based on the readings and then a conclusion giving my perspectives of the issues raised by the literature.

2.0 Social Exclusion

Saith (2001)gives the definition of Social exclusion as offered by the European Commission, as “ in relation to the rights of citizens…..to certain basic standard of living and to participation in the major social and occupational opportunity of the society” (Gore, Figuiredo and Rodgers, 1995 p.2) Several researchers have come up with different definitions but generaaly meaning lack of participation in normal societal activities.

The Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia defines social exclusion as” Social exclusion relates to the alienation or disenfranchisement of certain people within a society. It is often connected to a person's social class, educational status and living standards and how these might affect their access to various opportunities. It also applies to some degree to the disabled, to minority men and women of all races, and to the elderly. Anyone who deviates in any perceived way from the norm of a population can become subject to coarse or subtle forms of social exclusion.

“Social exclusion is about the inability of our society to keep all groups and individuals within reach of what we expect as a society...[or] to realise their full potential."^[1]

Saith adds that Social exclusion was first used in 1970s relating to exclusion from the “norm” and was defined by industrial societies. This resulted from the new type of poverty that was impacting the working class and already having some influence on peace and order. Since a kind of social tension started to grow, some new regulations were introduced to prevent further social disaster. As the social welfare regulations emerged Saith reports that some people were not beneficiaries of them and were regarded as misfits. Some of these included people with mental health problems, with disabilities, those who were on drugs, the unemployed and many others. However, the coming of globalization with new policies complicated the situation and made many more people socially vulnerable in the society in European countries. The social networks which were helping the people who were formerly included were broken and many people became unemployed and got out of the social welfare system. The EU intervened to improve the social conditions of people. Since globalization was spreading fats, the situation also spread to other parts of the world by international agents such as ILO and others.

In the US, the term used is “underclass”.

3.0 Social Exclusion in Developing countries

Regarding the application of the terminology in developing countries Saith shares that there are several differences with the developed world. A few comparisons refer to consequences of exclusion by touching on loss of human rights, work, welfare state, long-term unemployment , break down of social ties mostly relating to minorities, whereas in the developing countries the excluded population does not get income support for the unemployed, no social security for people with challenged ability, no education support to make children from poor families to make it to secondary school, no social insurance for the unemployed who are the majority in the rural areas. All this is due to having larger populations requiring such support.

4.0 Social inclusion according to the Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia ,” is affirmative action to change the circumstances and habits that lead to (or have led to) social exclusion.

“Social Inclusion is a strategy to combat social exclusion, but it is not making reparations or amends for past wrongs as in Affirmative Action. It is the coordinated response to the very complex system of problems that are known as social exclusion. The notion of social inclusion can vary according to the type of strategies organizations adopted.”

Social exclusion is a concept that is used in many parts of the world outside of the United States to characterize contemporary forms of social disadvantage. Dr. Lynn Todman suggests that social exclusion refers to processes by which entire communities of people are systematically blocked from rights, opportunities and resources (e.g., housing, employment, healthcare, civic engagement, democratic participation, and due process) that are normally available to members of American society and which are key to social integration.” The encyclopedia goes on to clarify that the term is relatively new and it has been taken by social justice activists to for research and activism for inclusion of marginalized groups.

5.0 Conclusion

The two terminologies affect communities today all over the world. There have been historical experiences of minority communities uprising for their recognition in the US, Europe and Asia. The civil society has played a big role in supporting marginalized groups to struggle for their rights to access social support and human rights. The developing countries CS learnt form the first world to activate for inclusion and participation of the poor.

Community Economic Development addresses issues of inclusion by being explicit about the inclusion of the disabled, the widows, the orphans, the elderly, and other marginalized groups in community level decision making. However, it is easier said than done and it is very important that those who get this knowledge generously share with others to facilitate actualization of inclusion and to avail more justice to those we aspire to work for.

Bibliography

1. Saith R (2001) QEH Working Paper Series QEHWPS72. Working Paper No 72.
2. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia